Acetyl-L-Carnitine
Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR) has been used for years to enhance mitochondrial function (the energy powerhouse of each cell), improving cognitive function and energy. It is often known as a mitochondrial boosting supplement. ALCAR is a precursor of acetylcholine, sometimes referred to as the learning neurotransmitter, which makes it a valuable brain-enhancing ingredient, which allows for improved learning ability, cognitive function, executive function and memory, amongst other benefits.
ALCAR can readily cross the blood-brain barrier and acts within the brain itself to enhance mental energy. ALCAR has been shown to work within the brain cells themselves and improve mitochondrial function which is the “powerhouse” part of the cell where nutrients are converted into energy, resulting in improved cognition and energy.
Amount used: 500mg
Active ingredient: Acetyl-L-Carnitine
Why: Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR) is an acetylated form of L-carnitine as it passes through the blood-brain barrier more efficiently to reach the brain and nerves, where it can naturally improve mood, learning and memory.
The acetyl group that is part of acetyl-L-carnitine contributes to the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is required for mental function. There is no dietary dosage requirement for Acetyl-L-Carnitine, however 500mg has been considered a functional dose to benefit the body and brain.
Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR) is a form of L-carnitine, an amino acid derivative that plays a key role in energy production and brain health. While ALCAR itself is not directly found in foods, it can be synthesised in the body from dietary sources of L-carnitine. The main plant-based sources are: Avocados, Tempeh (fermented soybeans), Whole wheat, and Asparagus.
Main benefits for Savvy:
- ALCAR promotes more mental energy
- Improves mood and happiness while combating stress and anxiety
- ALCAR can improve focus, attention and alertness
- Improves cognitive function and memory
To make it easy to identify all the different studies - we will highlight them for you!
We really hope you enjoy our many years of research when formulating Savvy...
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Scientific sources:
Inano, A, et al, ‘Acetyl-L-carnitine permeability across the blood-brain barrier and involvement of carnitine transporter OCTN2.’ in Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition, Volume 24, Issue 8, November 2003, 357 - 365. [Link]
“Accordingly, our results indicate that ALCAR is transported from blood to brain ECF by OCTN2 at least in part, and its concentration in brain ECF is regulated by other events such as protein binding and anabolic reactions in the brain, as well as by transport across the BBB.”
Reuter, SE and Evans, AM, ‘Carnitine and acylcarnitines: pharmacokinetic, pharmacological and clinical aspects.’ in Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Volume 51, Issue 9, pp 553 - 572. [Link]
“The physiological importance of L-carnitine and its obligatory role in the mitochondrial metabolism of fatty acids has been clearly established; however, more recently, additional functions of the carnitine system have been described... “
Smeland OB, et al, ‘Chronic acetyl-L-carnitine alters brain energy metabolism and increases noradrenaline and serotonin content in healthy mice.’ in Neurochemistry International, Volume 1, Volume 61, July 2012, pp 100 - 107. [Link]
“ALCAR has numerous effects on brain and muscle metabolism, protects against neurotoxic insults and may be an effective treatment for certain forms of depression.”
Nalecz, KA and Nalecz, NJ, ‘Carnitine--a known compound, a novel function in neural cells.’ in Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis, Volume 56, issue 2, 1996, pp 597 - 609. [Link]
“The presence of a carnitine carrier in the inner mitochondrial membrane has been proven and the protein has been purified. It is postulated that its major role in adult brain would be translocation of acetyl moieties from mitochondria into the cytoplasm for acetylcholine synthesis. The latter process is stimulated by carnitine and choline in a synergistic way in cells utilizing glucose as the main energetic substrate.”
Foster, DW, ‘The role of the carnitine system in human metabolism.’ in Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 1033, November 2004, pp 1 - 16. [Link]
“The pathways of energy production are reversible and distinct.”
Rosca, MG, et al, ‘Mitochondria in the elderly: Is acetylcarnitine a rejuvenator?’ in Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, Volume 61, Issue 14, November 2009, pp 1332 - 1342. [Link]
“Acetylcarnitine supplementation has beneficial effects in elderly animals and humans, including restoration of mitochondrial content and function. These effects appear to be dose-dependent and occur even after short-term therapy. In order to set the stage for understanding the mechanism of action of acetylcarnitine, we review the metabolism and role of this compound. We suggest that acetylation of mitochondrial proteins leads to a specific increase in mitochondrial gene expression and mitochondrial protein synthesis.”
Sung, DJ, et al, ‘Role of l-carnitine in sports performance: Focus on ergogenic aid and antioxidant’ in Science & Sports, Volume 31, Issue 4, September 201, pp 177 - 188. [Link]
“This review discusses research findings on ROS regulation of LC from both basic and sports science fields. It will highlight the role of LC as an antioxidant and ergogenic aid to improve physical performance and control oxidative stress.”
Liu, J, et al, ‘Comparison of the effects of L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine on carnitine levels, ambulatory activity, and oxidative stress biomarkers in the brain of old rats.’ in Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 1033, November 2004, pp 117 - 131. [Link]
“L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) are both used to improve mitochondrial function. Although it has been argued that ALC is better than l-carnitine in absorption and activity… These data suggest that ALC may be a better dietary supplement than L-carnitine.”
Malaguarnera, M, et al, ‘Acetyl L-carnitine (ALC) treatment in elderly patients with fatigue.’ in Archives of Qerontology and Geriatrics, Volume 46, Issue 2, March-April 2008, pp 181 - 190. [Link]
“Our data show that administering ALC may reduce both physical and mental fatigue in elderly and improves both the cognitive status and physical functions.”
Stephens, FB, et al, ‘New insights concerning the role of carnitine in the regulation of fuel metabolism in skeletal muscle’ in The Journal of Physiology, Volume 581, Pt 2, June 2007, pp 431 - 444. [Link]
“...roles of carnitine in skeletal muscle fuel metabolism and to highlight how manipulating the carnitine pool of skeletal muscle, both physiologically and pharmacologically, provides insight into the regulation of muscle energy metabolism and function.”
Flanagan, JL, et al, ‘Role of carnitine in disease’ in Nutrition and Metabolism, Volume 30, issue 7, 2010. [Link]
“Carnitine is a conditionally essential nutrient that plays a vital role in energy production and fatty acid metabolism.”
Inazu, M and Matsumiya T, ‘[Physiological functions of carnitine and carnitine transporters in the central nervous system].’ in Nihon Shinkei Seishin Yakurigaku Zasshi, Volume 28, Issue 3, June 2008, pp 113 - 120. [Link]
“L-Carnitine is an essential co-factor in the metabolism of lipids and consequently in the production of cellular energy. This molecule has important physiological roles, including its involvement in the beta-oxidation of fatty acids by facilitating the transport of long-chain fatty acids across the mitochondrial inner membrane as acylcarnitine esters. In the brain, L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine have important roles in cerebral bioenergetics and in neuroprotection through a variety of mechanisms including their antioxidant properties and in the modulation and promotion of synaptic neurotransmission, most notably cholinergic neurotransmission. Acetyl-L-carnitine was successfully applied as pharmacological agents for treatment of chronic degenerative diseases of the senile brain and for slowing down the progression of mental deterioration in Alzheimer's disease, and they may involve both the cholinergic neuronal transmission activity of acetyl-L-carnitine and its ability to enhance neuronal metabolism in mitochondria.”
Jacobs, PL, et al, ‘Glycine propionyl-L-carnitine produces enhanced anaerobic work capacity with reduced lactate accumulation in resistance trained males.’ in Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, Volume 6, Issue 9, April 2009. [Link]
“These findings indicate that short-term oral supplementation of GPLC can enhance peak power production in resistance trained males with significantly less LAC accumulation.”
Malaguarnera, Mm et al, ‘Acetyl L-carnitine (ALC) treatment in elderly patients with fatigue.’ in Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Volume 46, Issue 2, March-April 2008, pp 181 - 190. [Link]
“Our data show that administering ALC may reduce both physical and mental fatigue in elderly and improves both the cognitive status and physical functions.”
Pistone, G, ‘Levocarnitine administration in elderly subjects with rapid muscle fatigue: effect on body composition, lipid profile, and fatigue’ in Drugs & Aging, Volume 20, Issue 10, 2003, pp 761 - 767. [Link]
“Administration of levocarnitine to healthy elderly subjects resulted in a reduction of total fat mass, an increase of total muscle mass, and appeared to exert a favourable effect on fatigue and serum lipids”
Virmani, A, and Binienda, Z, ‘Role of carnitine esters in brain neuropathology.’ in Molecular Aspects of Medicine, Volume 25, Issue 5 and 6, October to December 2004, pp 533 - 549. [Link]
“L-Carnitine (L-C) is a naturally occurring quaternary ammonium compound endogenous in all mammalian species and is a vital cofactor for the mitochondrial oxidation of fatty acids. Fatty acids are utilized as an energy substrate in all tissues, and although glucose is the main energetic substrate in adult brain, fatty acids have also been shown to be utilized by brain as an energy substrate. L-C also participates in the control of the mitochondrial acyl-CoA/CoA ratio, peroxisomal oxidation of fatty acids, and the production of ketone bodies. “
Malaguarnera, M, et al, ‘L-Carnitine treatment reduces severity of physical and mental fatigue and increases cognitive functions in centenarians: a randomized and controlled clinical trial.’ in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Volume 86, Issue 6, December 2007, 1738 - 1744. [Link]
“L-Carnitine is an important contributor to cellular energy metabolism… Our study indicates that oral administration of levocarnitine produces a reduction of total fat mass, increases total muscular mass, and facilitates an increased capacity for physical and cognitive activity by reducing fatigue and improving cognitive functions.”
Vermeulen, RC, and Scholte, HR, ‘Exploratory open label, randomized study of acetyl- and propionylcarnitine in chronic fatigue syndrome.’ in Psychosomatic Medicine, Volume 66, Issue 2, March 2004, pp 276 - 282. [Link]
“Acetylcarnitine and propionylcarnitine showed beneficial effect on fatigue and attention concentration. Less improvement was found by the combined treatment. Acetylcarnitine had main effect on mental fatigue and propionylcarnitine on general fatigue.
Traina, G, ‘The neurobiology of acetyl-L-carnitine.’ in Frontiers in Bioscience (Landmark edition), Volume 1, Issue 21, June 2016, pp 1314 - 1329. [Link]
“A large body of evidence points to the positive effects of dietary supplementation of acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC). Its use has shown health benefits in neuroinflammation, which is a common denominator in a host of neurodegenerative diseases. ALC is the principal acetyl ester of L-Carnitine (LC), and it plays an essential role in intermediary metabolism, acting as a donor of acetyl groups and facilitating the transfer of fatty acids from cytosol to mitochondria during beta-oxidation. Dietary supplementation of ALC exerts neuroprotective, neurotrophic, antidepressive and analgesic effects in painful neuropathies. ALC also has antioxidant and anti-apoptotic activity. Moreover, ALC exhibits positive effects on mitochondrial metabolism, and shows promise in the treatment of aging and neurodegenerative pathologies by slowing the progression of mental deterioration.“
Czeczot, H and Scibior D. ‘[Role of L-carnitine in metabolism, nutrition and therapy].’ in Postepy Hig Med Dosw (online), Volume 59, 2005, pp 9 - 19. [Link]
“It is synthesized in the liver, kidney, and brain and carriers long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria for beta-oxidation and energy production. L-carnitine plays an important role in the translocation of acetyl moieties from the mitochondria to the cytoplasm for acetylcholine synthesis in neurones.“
Inazu, M and Matsumiya, T, ‘[Physiological functions of carnitine and carnitine transporters in the central nervous system].’ in Nihon Shinkew Seishen Yakurigaku Zasshi, Volume 28, Issue 3, June 2008, pp 113 - 120. [Link]
“L-Carnitine is an essential co-factor in the metabolism of lipids and consequently in the production of cellular energy.... In the brain, L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine have important roles in cerebral bioenergetics and in neuroprotection through a variety of mechanisms including their antioxidant properties and in the modulation and promotion of synaptic neurotransmission, most notably cholinergic neurotransmission. Acetyl-L-carnitine was successfully applied as pharmacological agents for treatment of chronic degenerative diseases of the senile brain and for slowing down the progression of mental deterioration in Alzheimer's disease, and they may involve both the cholinergic neuronal transmission activity of acetyl-L-carnitine and its ability to enhance neuronal metabolism in mitochondria.”
Older men and women who took ALCAR daily saw a significant boost to their physical and mental energy levels, as well as better overall cognitive ability. [Link]
Nalecz, KS, et al, ‘Carnitine: Transport and physiological functions in the brain’, in Molecular Aspects of Medicine, Volume 25, Issue 5-6, October 2004, pp 551 - 567. [Link]
“Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) is present in high concentrations in the brain, and it can be formed in the body or obtained through foods and can cross the blood-brain barrier. Several reports indicate that ALCAR might be involved in synapse functions, cholinergic neural transmission, and mitochondrial metabolism of neurons”
Sahlin, K, ‘Boosting fat burning with carnitine: an old friend comes out from the shadow’ in The Journal of Physiology, Volume 589, Part 7, April 2011, pp 1509 - 1510. [Link]
“Carnitine has a crucial role in lipid oxidation by mediating the translocation of long-chained fatty acids into mitochondria. During the past 30 years, dietary supplementation with carnitine has been widely used in order to enhance lipid oxidation and increase exercise performance.”
Stephens, FB, et al, ‘New insights concerning the role of carnitine in the regulation of fuel metabolism in skeletal muscle’ in The Journal of Physiology, Volume 581, Part 2, June 2007, pp 431 - 444. [Link]
“Thus, carnitine plays a vital role in the regulation of muscle fuel metabolism. The demonstration that its availability can be readily manipulated in humans, and impacts on physiological function, will result in renewed business and scientific interest in this compound...However, research over the past decade has shed new light on the importance of carnitine as a regulator of skeletal muscle fuel selection and physiological function.”
Ferreira GC and McKenna MC, ‘L-Carnitine and Acetyl-L-carnitine Roles and Neuroprotection in Developing Brain.’ in Neurochemical Research, Volume 42, Issue 6, June 2017, pp 1661 - 1675. [Link]
“There is compelling evidence from preclinical studies that L-carnitine and ALCAR can improve energy status, decrease oxidative stress, and prevent subsequent cell death in models of adult, neonatal, and pediatric brain injury. “
Wang, SM, et al ‘A review of current evidence for acetyl-l-carnitine in the treatment of depression.’ in Journal of Psychiatric Research, Volume 53, June 2014, pp 30 - 37. [Link]
“Acetyl-l-carnitine (ALC) is a potential antidepressant with novel mechanism of action because of its diverse functions related with neuroplasticity. Animal and cellular models suggest that ALC's neuroplasiticity effect, membrane modulation, and neurotransmitter regulation may play an important role in treatment of depression. Four randomized clinical studies (RCT) demonstrated the superior efficacy of ALC over placebo (PBO) in patients with depression.”
Sung, DJ, et al, ‘Role of l-carnitine in sports performance: Focus on ergogenic aid and antioxidant’ in Science & Sports, Volume 31, Issue 4, September 201, pp 177 - 188. [Link]
“This review discusses research findings on ROS regulation of LC from both basic and sports science fields. It will highlight the role of LC as an antioxidant and ergogenic aid to improve physical performance and control oxidative stress.”
Smeland OB, et al, ‘Chronic acetyl-L-carnitine alters brain energy metabolism and increases noradrenaline and serotonin content in healthy mice.’ in Neurochemistry International, Volume 1, Volume 61, July 2012, pp 100 - 107. [Link]
“ALCAR has numerous effects on brain and muscle metabolism, protects against neurotoxic insults and may be an effective treatment for certain forms of depression.”
Suzuki, H, et al, ‘The benefits of the concomitant use of antidepressants and acetyl-l-carnitine in the treatment of moderate depression.’ in Asian Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 41, March 2019, pp 84 - 85. [Link]
Lau, T, et al, ‘Stress-induced structural plasticity of medial amygdala stellate neurons and rapid prevention by a candidate antidepressant.’ in Molecular Psychiatry, Volume 22, Issue 2 February 2017, pp 227 - 234. [Link]
“Our findings identify MeA stellate neurons as an important component in the responses to stress and LAC action and show that LAC can promote structural plasticity of the MeA. This may be useful as a model for increasing resilience to stressors in at-risk populations.”
The above study shows that LAC enhances resilience to stress.
Volek, JS, et al, ‘Effects of carnitine supplementation on flow-mediated dilation and vascular inflammatory responses to a high-fat meal in healthy young adults.’ in The American Journal of Cardiology, Volume 102, Issue 10, November 2008, pp 1413 - 1417. [Link]
“...carnitine has been shown to decrease oxidative stress and improve endothelial cell functioning”
Cao, Y, et al, ‘Single dose administration of L-carnitine improves antioxidant activities in healthy subjects.` in The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine, Volume 224, Issue 3, July 2011, pp 209 - 213. [Link]
“L-carnitine increases activities of antioxidant enzymes and the total antioxidant capacity in healthy subjects. It may be useful as a supplementary therapy for chronic illnesses involving excessive oxidative stress.”
Bortolato, B, et al, ‘Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression?’ in BMC Medicine, Volume 14, Issue 9, January 2016. [Link]
“Several other novel agents may be repurposed as cognitive enhancers for MDD treatment, including minocycline, ..., acetyl-L-carnitine, alpha lipoic acid, omega-3 fatty acids, ..., curcumin... “
Traina, G, ‘The neurobiology of acetyl-L-carnitine.’ in Frontiers in Bioscience (Landmark edition), Volume 1, Issue 21, June 2016, pp 1314 - 1329. [Link]
“A large body of evidence points to the positive effects of dietary supplementation of acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC). Its use has shown health benefits in neuroinflammation, which is a common denominator in a host of neurodegenerative diseases. ALC is the principal acetyl ester of L-Carnitine (LC), and it plays an essential role in intermediary metabolism, acting as a donor of acetyl groups and facilitating the transfer of fatty acids from cytosol to mitochondria during beta-oxidation. Dietary supplementation of ALC exerts neuroprotective, neurotrophic, antidepressive and analgesic effects in painful neuropathies. ALC also has antioxidant and anti-apoptotic activity. Moreover, ALC exhibits positive effects on mitochondrial metabolism, and shows promise in the treatment of aging and neurodegenerative pathologies by slowing the progression of mental deterioration.“
Mannelli, L, et al ‘Antidepressant-like effect of artemin in mice: A mechanism for acetyl-l-carnitine activity on depression’ in Psychopharmacology, Volume 218, Issue 2, May 2011, pp 347 - 356. [Link]
“A mechanism for the antidepressant property of ALCAR is proposed, and the novelty of the possible role of ARTN in depression is suggested.”
Soczynska, J, et al, ‘Acetyl-L-carnitine and α-lipoic acid: possible neurotherapeutic agents for mood disorders?’ in Expert Opinions on Investigational Drugs, Volume 17, Issue 6, 2008, pp 827 - 843. [Link]
“L-carnitine and α-lipoic acid may offer neurotherapeutic effects (e.g., neurocognitive enhancement) via disparate mechanisms including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic regulation. Preliminary controlled trials in depressed geriatric populations also suggest an antidepressant effect with acetyl-L-carnitine.
"L-carnitine and α-lipoic acid are pleiotropic agents capable of offering neuroprotective and possibly cognitive-enhancing effects for neuropsychiatric disorders in which cognitive deficits are an integral feature.”
Vermeulen, RC and Scholte, HR, ‘Exploratory open label, randomized study of acetyl- and propionylcarnitine in chronic fatigue syndrome.’ in Psychosomatic Medicine, Volume 66, Issue 2, March-April 2004, pp 276 - 282. [Link]
“Acetylcarnitine significantly improved mental fatigue… Acetylcarnitine and propionylcarnitine showed beneficial effect on fatigue and attention concentration.”
Van Oudheusden LJ and Scholte HR, ‘Efficacy of carnitine in the treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.’ in Protaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, Volume 67, Issue 1, July 2002, pp 33 - 38. [Link]
“Treatment with carnitine significantly decreased the attention problems”
Chiechio, S, et al, ‘l-Acetylcarnitine: A Mechanistically Distinctive and Potentially Rapid-Acting Antidepressant Drug.’ in International Journal of Molecular Sciences, Volume 19, Issue 1, December 2017. [Link]
“l-acetylcarnitine (LAC), a small molecule of growing interest for its pharmacological properties, is currently marketed for treatment of neuropathic pain. Recent preclinical and clinical data suggested that LAC may exert antidepressant effects with a more rapid onset than conventional drugs.”
Passeri, M, et al, ‘Acetyl-L-carnitine in the treatment of mildly demented elderly patients.’ in International Journal of Clincial Pharmacology Research, Volume 10, Issue 1 and 2, 1990 pp 75 - 79. [Link]
“It was possible to affirm that the acetyl-L-carnitine treated patients showed statistically significant improvement in the behavioural scales, in the memory tests, in the attention barrage test and in the Verbal Fluency test”
Freddi, R, et al, ‘Behaviour and Degenerative Changes in the Basal Forebrain Systems of Aged Rats (12 Months Old) after Levo-Acetyl-Carnitine Treatments’ in JBBS Journal Volume 2, No1, February 2012. [Link]
“ALCAR-treated rats might play an important role in modulating cortical activity and facilitating processes of attention, learning and memory.”
Sarter, M and Parikh, V, ‘Choline transporters, cholinergic transmission and cognition.’ in Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. Volume 6, Issue 1, January 2005, pp 48 - 56. [Link]
“Cholinergic projections to the cortex and hippocampus mediate fundamental cognitive processes. The capacity of the high-affinity choline uptake transporter (CHT) to import choline from the extracellular space to presynaptic terminals is essential for normal acetylcholine synthesis and therefore cholinergic transmission. The CHT is highly regulated, and the cellular mechanisms that modulate its capacity show considerable plasticity. Recent evidence links changes in CHT capacity with the ability to perform tasks that tax attentional processes and capacities”
Van Oudheusden LJ and Scholte HR ‘ Efficacy of carnitine in the treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.’ in Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, Volume 67, Issue 1, July 2002, pp 33 - 38. [Link]
“Compared to baseline, the carnitine treatment caused in the responsive patients a decrease of 20-65% (8-48 points) as assessed by the CBCL total problem rating scale. Treatment with carnitine significantly decreased the attention problems and aggressive behavior in boys with ADHD.”
Kobayshi, S, et al, ‘Acetyl-L-carnitine improves aged brain function.’ in Geriatrics & Gerontology International, Volume 10, Supplement S99 - 106, July 2010. [Link]
“These results indicate that ALCAR increases synaptic neurotransmission in the brain and consequently improves learning capacity in aging rats.”
Hoffman, JR, et al, ‘The effects of acute and prolonged CRAM supplementation on reaction time and subjective measures of focus and alertness in healthy college students.’ in Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, Volume 7, issue 39, December 2010. [Link]
“Results indicate that acute ingestion of CRAM can maintain reaction time, and subjective feelings of focus and alertness to both visual and auditory stimuli in healthy college students following exhaustive exercise… The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of acute and prolonged (4-weeks) ingestion of a supplement designed to improve reaction time and subjective measures of alertness, energy, fatigue, and focus...CRAM; α-glycerophosphocholine, choline bitartrate, phosphatidylserine, vitamins B3, B6, and B12, folic acid, L-tyrosine, anhydrous caffeine, acetyl-L-carnitine, and naringin… Reaction time significantly declined..”
ALCAR is a precursor of the “learning neurotransmitter”, acetylcholine, which makes it a valuable brain-enhancing ingredient, which allows for improved learning ability, cognitive function, executive function, and memory, amongst other benefits.
Scientific sources:
White, HL and Scates, PW, ‘Acetyl-L-carnitine as a precursor of acetylcholine.’ in Neurochemical Research, Volume 15, Issue 6, June 1990, pp 597 - 601. [Link]
“Synthesis of [3H]acetylcholine from [3H]acetyl-L-carnitine was demonstrated in vitro by coupling the enzyme systems choline acetyltransferase and carnitine acetyltransferase.”
Chen, N, et al, ‘L-carnitine for cognitive enhancement in people without cognitive impairment.’ in Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Volume 26, Issue 3, March 2017. [Link]
Virmani, A, and Binienda, Z, ‘Role of carnitine esters in brain neuropathology.’ in Molecular Aspects of Medicine, Volume 25, Issue 5 and 6, October to December 2004, pp 533 - 549. [Link]
“The neurophysiological and neuroprotective actions of L-C and ALC on cellular processes in the central and peripheral nervous system show such effects. Indeed, many studies have shown improvement in processes, such as memory and learning, and are discussed in this review.”
Roseiro, LC and Santos, C, ‘Chapter 2.5 - Carnitines (Including l-Carnitine, Acetyl-Carnitine, and Proprionyl-Carnitine)’ in Nonvitamin and Nonmineral Nutritional Supplements, Academic Press, 2019, pp 45 - 52. [Link]
“the esterified forms such as acetyl, propionyl, tartrate, and fumarate have been studied in their role of enhancing cognitive function, exercise recovery, and nitric oxide production”
Passeri, M, et al, ‘Acetyl-L-carnitine in the treatment of mildly demented elderly patients.’ in International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology Research, Volume 10, Issue 1 and 2, 1990 pp 75 - 79. [Link]
“It was possible to affirm that the acetyl-L-carnitine treated patients showed statistically significant improvement in the behavioural scales, in the memory tests, in the attention barrage test and in the Verbal Fluency test”
Herrman, WM and Stephan K, ‘Efficacy and clinical relevance of cognition enhancers’ in Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, Volume 5, Supplement 1, 1991, S7 - 12. [Link]
“On the whole, the improvements on active drugs reached or exceeded the baseline variability of psychogeriatric scales and tests”
Ando, S, et al, ‘Enhancement of learning capacity and cholinergic synaptic function by carnitine in aging rats.’ in The Journal of Neuroscience Research, Volume 66, Issue 2, October 2001, pp 266 - 271. [Link]
“The learning capacity of the ALCAR-treated group was superior to that of the control. Cholinergic activities were determined with synaptosomes isolated from the cortices. The high-affinity choline uptake by synaptosomes, acetylcholine synthesis in synaptosomes, and acetylcholine release from synaptosomes on membrane depolarization were all enhanced in the ALCAR group”
Remington, R, et al, ‘Maintenance of Cognitive Performance and Mood for Individuals with Alzheimer's Disease Following Consumption of a Nutraceutical Formulation: A One-Year, Open-Label Study.’ in Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Volume 51, Issue 4, 2016, pp 991 - 995. [Link]
“Primary outcome was cognitive performance. Secondary outcomes were behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) and activities of daily living. Participants maintained their baseline cognitive performance and BPSD over 12 months. These findings are consistent with improvement in cognitive performance and BPSD in prior placebo-controlled studies with NF, and contrast with the routine decline for participants receiving placebo.”
Cuturic, M, et al ‘Clinical outcomes and low-dose levocarnitine supplementation in psychiatric inpatients with documented hypocarnitinemia: a retrospective chart review.’ in Journal of Psychiatric Practice. Volume 16, Issue 1, January 2010. Pp 5-14. [Link]
The above study found that People with low carnitine levels see a major decrease in brain function. Taking ALCAR improves that brain function. A lot. In a recent study, 8 out of 14 participants reversed a diagnosis of dementia and returned to their full cognitive abilities after taking ALCAR daily.
Abu Ahmad, N, et al, ‘l-Carnitine improves cognitive and renal functions in a rat model of chronic kidney disease.’ in Physiology & Behavior, Volume 164, Part A, October 2016, pp 182 - 188. [Link]
“Previous studies showed that l-carnitine administration to elderly people is improving and preserving cognitive function. … l-carnitine administration significantly improved cognitive and renal functions..”
Parnetti, L, et al, ‘Pharmacokinetics of IV and oral acetyl-L-carnitine in a multiple dose regimen in patients with senile dementia of Alzheimer type.’ in European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Volume 42, Issue 1, 1992, pp 89 - 93. [Link]
“At the end of oral treatment, plasma acetyl-L-carnitine and L-carnitine short chain esters were significantly higher than during the run-in phase. The CSF concentrations paralleled those in plasma, suggesting that ALC easily crosses the blood-brain barrier.”
